All risk factors

Eaten. A toxin made by moulds on crops such as maize, peanuts and tree nuts, mostly in warm, humid regions. Also found in meat and dairy from animals fed contaminated feed. Farm workers can breathe in dust from contaminated crops and feed.

Eaten and drunk. Beer, wine, spirits — risk rises with the amount consumed.

Eaten. Compounds that form when meat (beef, pork, chicken, fish) is cooked at very high temperatures — especially grilled over open flame, pan-fried until well-done, or barbecued.

Eaten. Bacon, sausages, hot dogs, ham, deli meats, and other meat preserved by salting, curing, fermentation, or smoking.

Eaten. Unprocessed beef, pork, lamb, and similar mammalian muscle meat.

Drunk. Tea, coffee, soup, mate, or other beverages consumed above 65 °C (149 °F). The temperature is what matters, not the drink — letting it cool reduces this exposure.

Eaten. Forms during high-temperature cooking of starchy foods — fried potatoes, crisps, toast, biscuits, and coffee roasting. Reducing browning reduces exposure.

Eaten. In some traditional herbal preparations and supplements containing Aristolochia species. Several countries have withdrawn these from the market.

Drunk. Naturally contaminated well water in some regions (parts of Bangladesh, India, Chile, parts of the US Southwest). Public water supplies in regulated jurisdictions are tested.

Chewed. Areca-nut and slaked-lime preparation, often with tobacco, traditional across South and Southeast Asia.

Smoked, eaten, or used as a tea. Long-term use is most common in parts of Iran, Afghanistan, and surrounding regions.

Drunk and eaten. Drinking water contaminated near PFAS manufacturing or use sites, plus low-level dietary exposure. PFOA persists in the body and the environment.

Eaten. Traditional Asian-style pickled vegetables prepared with high salt and fermentation, where they are dietary staples (parts of East and Southeast Asia).

Eaten. Chinese-style preserved salted fish — especially when eaten in childhood. Strongest association in regions where it is a traditional staple.

Classified by IARC as Group 2A — probably carcinogenic to humans. (Vol 7, Sup 7, 96, 2010)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 101, 2013)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 101, 2013)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 84, 2004)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 101, 2013)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 101, 2013)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 40, Sup 7, 1987)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 36, Sup 7, 71, 1999)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 31, Sup 7, 1987)

Mostly industrial — used as a dye in textiles, leather, paper, or research. Some are or were used in cosmetics or food colouring; check the specific entry.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 101, 2013)

Breathed and on skin. Industrial solvent — occupational exposure in cleaning, degreasing, and chemical manufacturing.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 40, Sup 7, 1987)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 56, 1993)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 31, Sup 7, 1987)

Mostly industrial — used as a dye in textiles, leather, paper, or research. Some are or were used in cosmetics or food colouring; check the specific entry.

Eaten. A toxin found in certain wild plants — most commonly consumed via contaminated herbal teas, supplements, or grain crops harvested with weeds.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 101, 2013)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 52, 71, 101, 2013)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 63, 84, 106, 2014)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 10, Sup 7, 1987)

Eaten. Mould contamination on improperly stored grains, nuts, dried fruit, or coffee — especially in warm, humid storage conditions.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 63, 1995)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 108, 2016)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 40, Sup 7, 1987)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 108, 2016)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 108, 2016)

Eaten. A toxin found in certain wild plants — most commonly consumed via contaminated herbal teas, supplements, or grain crops harvested with weeds.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 40, Sup 7, 1987)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol Sup 7, 56, 1993)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol Sup 7, 56, 1993)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 10, Sup 7, 1987)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 101, 2013)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 94, 2010)

Eaten. A toxin found in certain wild plants — most commonly consumed via contaminated herbal teas, supplements, or grain crops harvested with weeds.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 7, Sup 7, 1987)

Eaten or breathed. Forms in cured meats (bacon, ham), in tobacco smoke, and in some industrial processes. Trace dietary exposure for most people; higher occupational exposure in rubber and leather industries.

Eaten or breathed. Forms in cured meats (bacon, ham), in tobacco smoke, and in some industrial processes. Trace dietary exposure for most people; higher occupational exposure in rubber and leather industries.

Eaten or breathed. Forms in cured meats (bacon, ham), in tobacco smoke, and in some industrial processes. Trace dietary exposure for most people; higher occupational exposure in rubber and leather industries.

Eaten. Mould contamination on improperly stored grains, nuts, dried fruit, or coffee — especially in warm, humid storage conditions.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 8, Sup 7, 1987)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 56, 1993)

Mostly industrial — used as a dye in textiles, leather, paper, or research. Some are or were used in cosmetics or food colouring; check the specific entry.

Mostly industrial — used as a dye in textiles, leather, paper, or research. Some are or were used in cosmetics or food colouring; check the specific entry.

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol Sup 7, 73, 1999)

Classified by IARC as Group 2B — possibly carcinogenic to humans. Evidence is limited. (Vol 108, 2016)

Eaten. A toxin found in certain wild plants — most commonly consumed via contaminated herbal teas, supplements, or grain crops harvested with weeds.

Eaten. A toxin found in certain wild plants — most commonly consumed via contaminated herbal teas, supplements, or grain crops harvested with weeds.

Eaten. Mould contamination on improperly stored grains, nuts, dried fruit, or coffee — especially in warm, humid storage conditions.