Reference summary — not medical advice or a personal risk estimate.
Combined menopausal hormone therapy
Quick answer
Classified as Group 1 — carcinogenic to humans, based on sufficient evidence in humans. Prescription medication. Used to manage menopausal symptoms.
Summary
Estrogen-progestogen menopausal hormone therapy is associated with increased breast and endometrial cancer risk.
Detail
Combined estrogen-progestogen menopausal therapy is Group 1 with sufficient evidence for breast and endometrial cancer. Decisions about hormone therapy involve balancing symptom relief against cancer and cardiovascular risks — discuss with a clinician.
What's not established
This classification is based on sufficient evidence in humans that this factor can cause cancer. It does not establish a safe exposure threshold, your personal risk, or how this factor's risk compares in size to other Group 1 agents — hazard classifications are not ranked by magnitude.
Regional relevance
global
Documented in these products
Presence in a product category doesn't imply the product causes cancer. Click each to see the source and context.
Evidence sources
Every claim on this page traces back to one of these. Click through to read the primary document yourself.
Primary sources
NCI
NCI — Risk Factors: Hormones
IARC
IARC Monographs — Classifications by Cancer Site, Vols 1–140
Supporting sources
ACS
ACS — Known and Probable Human Carcinogens
Cancer Research UK
Cancer Research UK — Causes of cancer and reducing your risk
IARC / WHO — European Code Against Cancer
European Code Against Cancer (5th edition) — 14 ways you can help prevent cancer
NTP
NTP — Report on Carcinogens (US National Toxicology Program)
Last reviewed: October 2026
Official reference list
A government list some readers use alongside the primary evidence. Meyron is not affiliated with it. A chemical being listed does not by itself describe a risk from any particular product.
- California Prop 65 list
State of California's list of chemicals known to cause cancer or reproductive harm.